How a group of feared, hated and banned immigrants created New York’s (and America’s) most popular cuisine

You’re hanging out with family and/or friends. It’s dinnertime, and no one wants to cook. A decision is made to “order in.” But what kind of food? Someone says “Let’s do Chinese!” Everyone agrees. Years ago a huge collection of paper menus would be brought out, but nowadays everyone chooses their favorites via cell phone.

Faster than expected, the doorbell rings. Bags of fragrant food arrive. Containers are spread across the table. Chopsticks, sweet-and-sour and soy sauce packets, and fortune cookies are disseminated. Everyone starts passing food around. Although each person may have ordered one or two of their favorites, everyone tries everything.

When all are stuffed and can’t eat another bite, there is still a lot left, destined to become tomorrow’s fried rice. And the bill was surprisingly inexpensive.

When we look at the above story a bit closer, we’ll discover the genius behind the Chinese entrepreneurs who invented this “fast food” cuisine in America over a century ago. And it will explain why there are more Chinese restaurants in the U.S. than MacDonald’s, Burger King and KFC combined.

First, did you know that the concept of getting full meals delivered to your home was introduced by Chinese-American New Yorkers? New York is also the birthplace of the once-ubiquitous Chinese menus hand-delivered to every residence, a cost-effective form of marketing. Another innovation is the enormous selection of dishes listed on those menus, offering something for everybody. The food is hot and fast because of the Chinese method of stir-frying fresh ingredients and rushing them to waiting diners. The “family style” of eating is an age-old Chinese custom, practiced to this day. Chinese eateries open early in the day and remain open until very late at night, so they’re ready to serve diners at any time. And the large quantity of food for an inexpensive price has been a hallmark of American Chinese restaurants since their inception, allowing hungry people from all walks of life a seat at the table.

Although American Chinese food is not “native” to New York, it has become so ingrained in the city’s culture and foodways, and is so widely enjoyed in every borough, that I consider it an “iconic” New York food. I can’t imagine any compilation of popular Big Apple eats without it. And, as we will see, some of the most important Chinese chefs, restaurateurs, and innovative dishes were born in New York City.

When did the Chinese come to New York?

Contrary to popular belief, the Chinese did not wait until after the California Gold Rush or the completion of the transcontinental railroad in 1869 to venture to New York. They had sailed into the harbor as early as the 1780s, as merchants and traders. By 1830 they had formed a small community in the notorious Five Points section of downtown Manhattan, which eventually became known as Chinatown. Since there were very few Chinese women (one for every six men), the guys had to cook and launder for themselves and their compatriots, skills they would employ when starting businesses.

When the Gold Rush and railroad were completed, the Chinese spread out all over the country. By the 1870s they lived in 32 of the 37 states. But racist attacks out west and in small towns everywhere forced the Chinese to flee to urban Chinese enclaves, where there was safety in numbers. By 1880, there were thousands of immigrants living in Manhattan’s Chinatown.

The early Chinese were ridiculed and despised. They were “more different” than other foreigners, with their seemingly indecipherable language and writing, braided hair, odd customs, unheard-of foods, and penchant for eating with sticks. They were often referred to as “celestials” because of their other-worldly appearance. Rumors abounded about their consuming rats, cats and dogs, and running “white slavery” rings. In 1886, The Chinese Exclusion Act was passed by Congress, the first legislation to ban an entire nationality. This act ended Chinese immigration for 61 years, and barred those already here from gaining citizenship or bringing over their wives and families.

Racial discrimination prevented the Chinese from working in most jobs. Restaurants and laundries were the only exceptions. Many Chinese became entrepreneurs, opening their own eateries and hand laundries, to service fellow newcomers. Almost all Chinese immigrants were from Guangdong Province (Canton), which had the most developed cuisine in China, such as Bird’s Nest Soup (a cherished delicacy incorporating a swiftlet’s nest found only on the high island cliffs off southeast China.) In the U.S. they continued to prepare Cantonese fare, “Americanizing” it to attract wary outsiders.

It still took New Yorkers a long time to try Chinese food. In the late 1800’s, the first to venture into the mysterious Chinatown were rebellious youth, or “bohemians,” who got their kicks by “slumming” in danger-filled neighborhoods late at night. A few adventurous tourists also explored the strange Chinese enclave on tours led by huckster Chuck Connors, the self-proclaimed Mayor of Chinatown. He staged scenes of “safe vice” – including a fake opium den – to thrill visitors, and eventually lead them into a restaurant to sample the exotic food. The late hours of operation and the welcome that Chinese restaurants offered attracted African Americans to their doors. The nearby Jewish population came too, who lived only blocks away on the Lower East Side. To the Chinese, all non-Chinese were seen simply as “Americans.” The Jews eventually made American Chinese food one of their favorite cuisines (more on this love affair later.)

Slowly, Chinatown morphed from a target of racial hatred into a popular tourist destination. Finally, there was one invention that launched American Chinese cuisine into the culinary stratosphere...

Chop Suey Mania

As the story goes, chop suey was invented in New York City in 1896. A visiting diplomat named Li Hongzhang was honored with a banquet at the Waldorf-Astoria. Li didn’t like western food, so the Chinese chef threw together whatever ingredients he had, stir-fried them, and served them over rice (“chow” means stir-fry, and “suey” means odds and ends.) When the visit and meal were reported in the newspapers, public curiosity was generated for China’s mysteries, marvels, and gastronomic treats.

The original chop suey was a far cry from the tasteless goop served today, if you can even find it anymore. It included chicken livers, pig tripe, bamboo shoots and bean sprouts stir-fried over a hay fire. Soon it was transformed into a lackluster dish made with whatever ingredients were on hand, served atop rice with, of all things, gravy. Chop suey is strictly an American dish (a New York City one at that) and is never served in China.

Chop suey soon became one of the most popular dishes in New York and the nation, achieving brand-name recognition. It was the Big Mac of Chinese food. New Yorkers went chop suey mad. The dish became a national addiction. Restaurants listed dozens of different kinds, along with many versions of chow mein (basically chop suey served over crispy fried noodles instead of rice.) Leslie’s Illustrated Newspaper warned that folks can “fall under the spell of chop suey” and “suddenly a strange craving that almost defies will power arises.”

Popular Chinatown restaurants, usually located on the second or third floors (street-level eateries were for Chinese residents), expanded to accommodate the throngs. Port Arthur Restaurant on 7 Mott Street boasted a banquet-sized dining room, teak and mahogany tables inlaid with mother of pearl, 30 variations of chop suey, and Chinatown’s first liquor license. There was even one eatery calling itself “The Chinese Delmonico’s.” A singing waiter named Izzy Baline, who plied his trade while waitering in Chinese restaurants, later made a name for himself as Irving Berlin.

Chop suey joints opened up all over the city, proclaiming their famous entree with brash neon signs. Downtown businessmen relished the dish. By 1900, African Americans crammed the chop suey restaurants which had located in Harlem. Tourists lined up at the huge new chop suey palaces in Times Square, such as the Far East, Ruby Foo’s, and Yeong’s, which also offered live music and dancing. (Select to enlarge:)

By mid-century, a chop suey recipe was even added to The Joy of Cooking. Supermarkets began offering La Choy and Chun King brands of canned chop suey. Americans couldn’t get enough of the stuff.

Then it was all over. By the 1970s chop suey was relegated to the dustbin of history. Few restaurants serve it today. New Chinese and other Asian immigrants would soon introduce a much wider range of interesting and innovative dishes. For example, Americans began to take a liking to the Chinese tradition of Dim Sum, which means “touch your heart.” Originated by Silk Road travelers who stopped at roadside dumpling houses, these small servings of steamed or fried foods are a brunch delight. One of the many places to sample this cuisine is Nom Wah Tea Parlor on the bend of Doyers Street, established in 1920, now run by young Chinatown superstar Wally Tang.

What kind of Chinese food would you like?

After many courageous Chinese Americans fought with honor in World War II, President Roosevelt signed the repeal of the Exclusion Act. Chinese could now become citizens. A flood of Chinese and other Asian immigrants came to the U.S., most especially New York City. Chinatown became the most populous Chinese community in the western hemisphere, expanding into Little Italy and the Lower East Side, replacing Italians and Jews who were moving to the suburbs. They also settled in Elmhurst and Flushing in Queens, as well as Sunset Park and Bay Ridge in Brooklyn.

With this increase in immigration came chefs from other regions of China, besides the original Cantonese, introducing their distinctive styles to New Yorkers. From the western hinterland of China came Szechuan and Hunan cuisines. When the Szechuan haunt Shun Lee Dynasty earned four stars from The New York Times, it sparked new interest in upscale Chinese cooking. Broadway along the Upper West side became known as “Szechuan Alley” due to its phalanx of this suddenly popular style. The Szechuan Inn, Four Seas, and Empire Szechuan boomed, joined by Hunam, the city’s first Hunanese eatery. These new styles of zesty, spicy and inventive dishes became the rage.

By far the most popular Hunan dish is the ubiquitous General Tso’s Chicken, created by a Taiwanese chef named Peng Chang-kuei and adapted in New York into the saucy, sweet and spicy dish we consume by the ton. To learn about this masterful chef, and discover who the heck General Tso is, read “Meet Peng Chang-kuei” by selecting below: (there’s another link at the end of this chapter)

More lore

In 1993, the Center for Science in the Public Interest concluded that Chinese food was “loaded with fat and calories.” This negative publicity hurt the industry...but it didn’t stop NASA from sending astronauts into space with thermo-stabilized sweet and sour pork and hot and sour soup. Other Asian immigrants tried their hands at feeding hungry New Yorkers, with perhaps lighter fare. Japanese, Thai, Malaysian, Korean, Vietnamese, and many other far east cuisines followed the Chinese lead and won the hearts of city-dwelling foodies. As these new tastes traveled across America, they gathered fans everywhere.

Two big days on Chinatown’s calendar are Chinese New Year’s and Thanksgiving. If you wish to join the New Year’s celebrations, arrive on the day of the new moon between January 21 and February 20...and bring your ear plugs! If you visit on Thanksgiving, you’ll see hundreds of young Chinese brides rustling up and down the streets. Since this is the only day that many Chinese workers have off, you’ll find tens of thousands of people attending hundreds of weddings throughout Chinatown.

How fortunate!

So what does the March 30, 2005 drawing of the Powerball lottery have to do with Chinese food? The national jackpot was a measly $84 million, and only attracted $11 million in sales. The shock came when the Powerball staff discovered that, instead of the usual 3 or 4 second-place winners, there were 110! The big jackpot is shared by multiple winners, but the lucrative second prizes paid up to half a million dollars each. So many second-place finishers could have unfortunate financial consequences for the lottery. 

Was it fraud? Investigators found no patterns or connections with the numerals. What could have caused so many people from all over the country to pick the same exact numbers (and the same exact wrong “powerball” number?)

The first winner they interviewed admitted he had played the “lucky numbers” from a fortune cookie. The next winner repeated the same confession. And the next, and the next, and so on. So one batch of fortune cookies, shipped around the country, paid off $19 million to 110 wealthy individuals.

Fortune cookies are full of surprises. Not the least of which is the fact that they originated in Japan, not China. Known as tsujiura senbei (“bells with fortunes”) they are referenced in an 1878 drawing showing a Japanese baker producing them. They are still made in Japan today, although they are a bit browner and thicker than our American version.

Fortune cookies were introduced to the U.S. by the architect of San Francisco’s Japanese Tea Garden, Makoto Hagiwara, who served a paler, thinner version with tea to visitors. Japanese-American bakers produced them for decades, forming the hot cooked dough around the paper fortunes with seemingly asbestos fingers. (Traditional Chinese cooks did not bake, nor did they have ovens, which explains the brevity of their dessert menus.)

The big change came with World War II, when most of the western Japanese population were sadly relegated to internment camps, and had to abandon their cookie-making equipment. The Chinese deftly took over the fortune cookie industry. By the 1950s Americans were consuming 250 million of the fortune-filled delicacies a year. Today, the largest producer of fortune cookies, Wonton Foods in good old Brooklyn, NY, makes over 4.5 million fortune cookies per day. (By the way, they are well aware that many people end their fortune by adding “...in bed.”)

Why do Jews love Chinese food?

Okay, I’ve consulted numerous sources for the answer to this question. Turns out there are multiple answers, quoted by various scholars, authors and diners. Here’s what they said:

• Chinese food is a ritual dinner for Jews, mostly on Sundays, but especially on Christmas, when Jews enjoy a Chinese dinner and a movie, and Chinese restaurateurs enjoy their busiest day of the year.

• Chinese and Jews are the two largest non-Christian immigrant groups in America. The don’t share the same days of worship as Christians. And you won’t find Christian iconography in Chinese eateries.

• Jews are treated respectfully at Chinese restaurants. To the Chinese, “a Jew is just another American.”

• Proximity. The original Jewish ghetto was right next to the original Chinese ghetto in downtown Manhattan. (A magnificent 1886 synagogue, now called Museum at Eldridge Street, is in central Chinatown.)

• Chinese cooks don’t combine meat with dairy. In fact, Chinese rarely eat dairy at all. This fits perfectly with kosher law.

• Chinese cut their pork and shellfish (non-kosher foods) into tiny pieces, disguising it. In short, “What you can’t see won’t hurt you.” Or rather, “What God can’t see won’t betray you”. This leads to the notion of Chinese food as “Safe Traif” (traif is non-kosher food.) 

• Jews keeping Kosher homes can serve Chinese food on paper plates with chopsticks, without using their kosher plates and utensils.

• There are lots of kosher Chinese restaurants nowadays (true!)

• Eating Chinese food is “American,” symbolizing worldliness, helping new immigrants to assimilate into their new culture. “Chinese people and Jewish people helped each other become Americans.”

• When Jews moved to the suburbs, Chinese restaurants followed. “You can tell how Jewish a neighborhood is by the number of Chinese restaurants.”

•  Finally, the late Ed Schoenfeld, one of America’s leading gourmands, whose RedFarm restaurants serve Katz’s Pastrami Egg Rolls, said that Jews love Chinese food “because it tastes good.” 

Amen!